Buddhism, Philosophy and Ideas

Although not fond of labels because they have a delimiting quality I do consider myself a Buddhist in thought and practice. The original interest in and present affinity and belief in Buddhism is founded on philosophy. I do indeed love wisdom and the ideas and applications that are connected.
On this page you will find connections to Buddhism and philosophy that I have discovered over the past several years. I will also include some of my personal ideas and ruminations, which in many cases are works in progress as I live, learning every day.
I think of philosophy (Greek: 'philo'=love + 'sophia'=wisdom) as the generation, aquisition, organization and application of ideas to one's life and to the world. There is the matter of a love of wisdom for its own (intrinsic) sake and for what it can do (extrinsic value).
The four fundamental realms of thought (and action) are 1. religion 2. philosophy 3. science and 4. politics. Philosophy is appropriately placed between religion and science not only because of its historical place, but due to its role (real and/or potential). Philosophy can serve as an untainted, neutral intermediary between religion and science.
In ancient times, such as the days of the Pre-Socratics in Greece, religion, philosophy and science were one. In time, they split apart, most notably science from philosophy. Today, for many people science is the new religion and the new philosophy. But philosophy is not forgotten. (Have you not been asked: what is your philosophy of life?) Dry, sometimes dogmatic science is not sufficient for some people, it being too values-free, almost nihilistic. And an increasingly rationalistic generation in the West rejects religion as useless, redundant, irrelevant, even dangerous. Blind faith doesn't suit this age. Nor are dry rules from the past in accord with the spirit of the times. And yet, there remains a demand for religion, often strong, from some quarters. Similarly, there is a demand for science. Really, what people are seeking are answers. They want to know how the world works, and how to live in it. The growing interest in Buddhism from educated quarters comes, I suspect, because Buddhism proper fuses religion, science and philosophy.

Buddhism

Who was Buddha?

Who was Buddha? Who is Buddha? The world 'Buddha' comes from the ancient Pali term "Bodh' which means awakened. To be awake to the world is to be Buddha. Thus, we can all be Buddha. In Buddhism, there are and have been many Buddhas in the history of the world, many fully enlightened beings. In Theravada Buddhism as practiced in Southeast Asia, when speaking of the Buddha one usually refers to the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gotama who lived in India around 2500 years ago. In Mahayana Buddhism as practiced in China, Tibet, Korea and Japan, there are many mythical Buddhas as well, each worshipped for the specific attributes it symbolizes. Siddhartha Gotama, the historical Buddha, was an actual man born in India 2500 years ago. He was born in Lumpini Park in Kapilavastu (now Nepal) to a wealthy royal clan called Shakya. The Buddha is thus often called by his family name plus a holy suffix, Shakyamuni. He was raised in luxury, but also an intentional blindness to the world. From his early days, he demonstrated special powers and intelligence. A prophesy was made to Siddhartha's father when the boy was quite young. It was prophesied that he would grow to be either a great conqueror of the world or as a priest, the Enlightened One. Siddhartha's father preferred the former, not wishing to lose his son, and so kept the young boy insulated from the world. The boy grew into a man, married and had a child. But there was something missing in his easy and sheltered life of splendor. He was dissatisified and inquisitive. With the help of some servants, Siddhartha snuck out of the palace on several occasions in an attempt to learn something of the 'real world'. He was shocked by what he saw, as these things had been kept hidden from him within the palace. On his first occasion, he saw a dead man, then a sick man, then an old man. Was this really life, he thought. Old age, sickness and death!! Such pain and suffering. Then on a subsequent outing, Siddhartha saw a religious wanderer. He there decided that he would follow a similar path in order to understand and resolve the problem of suffering in life. And so, one night after a decadent party in the palace, Siddhartha kissed his sleeping wife and child goodbye, uncertain if he would ever return, and fled. At the forest's edge, he gave up everything he had, cut his long, royal hair, shed his royal garb and bid his servant return to the castle with his horse. Siddhartha thus began at age 29, his quest to know, understand and solve the problem of suffering in life. At this time in India, there were many religious wanderers and and teachers. There were ascetics and lofty Brahmins. Siddhartha joined the wandering ascetics, and sought understanding and release from suffering through extreme bodily deprivation and meditation. After several years of such self-torture, he was no nearer the truth, just weary and lean. One day a young woman came to him and offered him some sweet rice and he then realized that the way to enlightenment was not through depriving the body as he had been attempting nor through the pampering of his former palace life. Balance was necessary. The way to truth must be a middle way between the two extremes. One must be healthy and strong in order to learn. Siddhartha then proceeded to meditate beneath a tree (now called a Bodhi tree). For seven days and nights he meditated, thwarted by Mara (the spirit of illusion and desire), but never succumbing. At last he attained enlightenment, at age 35, six years after setting out. He understood the power of the mind, problem of life and the solution. He considered what to do next. At first, he thought that what he had realized was truly too profound to teach. But, he had to teach it. While most people have too much dust in their eyes to see the truth, there are some with only a little dust in their eyes. He proceeded to Deer Park near what is now Varanasi and there found five young Brahmins to whom he taught his first lesson. After his first lesson, a community of monks arose -- the original Sangha. The Buddha continued to wander and teach until he died at age 80. But this was only a beginning for Buddhism.

The Teachings of the Buddha: The Four Noble Truths

"To refrain from evil, to do good, to purify the heart." In a nutshell, this is the core of Buddhism, which it shares with the perennial philosophy expressed expressed by other religions around the world. The teachings of Buddhism, however, are more detailed than this and rather systematic. Continuing from the essay Who was the Buddha? I will here explain what Siddartha Gautama actually taught. After he attained enlightment, which amounted to achieving a remarkable insight into the human condition, Siddartha was unsure what to do with this tremendous wisdom he had gleaned. At first, he thought of teaching it to others, but then doubted that it could be truly communicated in words, that others would be unable to comprehend what he was getting at. Perhaps this wisdom was for him alone to realize and use. Fortunately for us, however, a sense of duty prevailed and while then as now, in terms of great truth most people metaphorically have too much dust in their eyes to fully see, there are some whose sight is obscured by only a little dust. The Buddha hoped that his teaching might be of benefit to the. So, he set off to teach. The Buddha gave his first lesson at Deer Park, Sarnath (near Varanasi, in India) to a group of wandering ascetics he knew. In it, the Buddha explained the human condition in terms of a framework called the Four Noble Truths. Noble Truth 1: There is suffering. (Or more precisely, unsatisfactoriness.)Noble Truth 2: There is a cause of suffering. That cause is desire and attachment.Noble Truth 3: There is a way to eliminate the suffering, which is to eliminate the cause.Noble Truth 4: The way leading to the elimination of suffering is the eightfold noble path. The first noble truth, that there is unsatisfactoriness, is founded on a fundamental characteristic of being noted by Buddhism, which is that all things are impermanent and changing. Remember the Buddha's pre-enlightenment glimpses of old age, sickness and death in which he first confronted human suffering. Most people would not dispute that human life entails a certain amount of sorrow and loss and that this is in the nature of living. There is suffering and we cannot keep things forever and the same. The Buddha believed that this was the fundamental problem of existence. But, it is not a hopeless situation, for the Buddha, like a good doctor, examined the disease and identified the cause. This, he said, is craving. Thus arose the second noble truth.We are always desiring what we don't have. We want things to remain the same and in our possession, a form of attachment. This is futile, though, because of impermanance. This causes us to suffer.Having identified a cause, there is a possible solution, simply the elimination of the cause. This is the third noble truth. It is very important. Get rid of desire and attachment (or reduce it) and suffering will disappear (or be reduced). That seems quite clear, but the question is how. The Buddha then explained the fourth noble truth as his elegant eight-fold noble path to the elimination of suffering by eliminating the cause of suffering.The Buddha recognized further that craving was rooted in three fundamental types of defilement or imperfection: 1) ignorance, 2) greed and 3) hatred. He designed his noble path to attack and eliminate this three hindrances to happiness.The Eightfold Noble Path1. Right understanding. 2. Right thought.3. Right speech. 4. Right action. 5. Right livelihood. 6. Right effort. 7. Right mindfulness. 8. Right concentration. Everything you need to know about Buddhism to achieve enlightment is here. Elements one and two have to do with wisdom, which combats ignorance. Elements three, four and five are about morality, which combats hatred. The last three elements are about concentration, which combats greed. The path is thus broken into these three parts. The Buddha taught the eight points in different ways depending on the character of his student. For someone overwhelmed by greed, he emphasized concentration, while for someone full of hatred, he would focus on morality. The three sections are to be studied as is appropriate to the student. Right understanding is the foundation of wisdom and the cessation of suffering. If you don't understand or misunderstand, the Buddha's teachings, then you will surely encounter problems. Right thought entails using right understanding in order for your mind to aspire to thoughts which are free of greed, hatred and ignorance. With right thought, you achieve a mind which is largely still and full of loving-kindness.The next three steps underlie all the rest, for without morality, wisdom or concentration are difficult if not impossible. One should be truthful and moderate in speaking and similarly in behavior. The five precepts of Buddhist life refer to 1) not killing (the converse:preserve life) 2) not stealing (the converse:preserve and respect things) 3) not lying (the converse: be truthful) 4) not being sexually indulgent (the converse: be moderate and true in sexual matters) and 5) not consuming intoxicants (the converse:have a healthy diet and care for your body and mind). This says so much. I might addthat one should not harm the universe around you, but be kind to all and everything. A right livelihood is important too, as one's job should not entail violation of the five precepts. Such jobs as butchers, executioners or thieves do not incline one to a moral life. With wisdom and morality in place, it is then time to train the mind. Mental training, also called meditation, is critical to Buddhist practice and sets it apart from western religions. Suffering really originates in our mind as it is our response to situation and circumstance that creates sorrow and pain. So, it is through the mind that we can finally follow the third noble truth. One begins by making the effort to concentrate the mind and this effort is made towards achieving mindfulness. One should be aware at all times of one's thoughts, words and deeds and be cognizant of cause and effect. The Buddha taught that live in a realm of conditioned things called "samsara" (the cycle of suffering) that are fueled by karma which is fueled by ignorance and a lack of mindfulness. When one is mindful, one is more apt to refrain from doing bad and to do good. Concentration means focussing the mind (making it calm and one-pointed) and maintaining that mindfulness at all times in everything you think, say and do. When all eight elements of the path work together, one will truly find a happiness that is strong and enduring. The four noble truths of which it is a part are the foundation of all forms of Buddhism and a philosophy and religion not so difficult to understand or apply. The Buddha taught this lesson in many forms for the next forty-five years until his death. Their truth still rings true.

MIND AND ZEN

Why are we born? We are born so that we will not have to be born again.To attain unltimate enlightenment, called Nirvana, is like extinguishing a candle, whose flame is suffering. fueled by the three poisons of 'desire', 'hatred' and 'ignorance'.At the core of Buddhist teaching, and something that distinguishes it from other religions, is the emphasis on MIND -- the forerunner of all good and all evil, the cause of suffering and the source of ultimate release. Buddhahood is awareness and awareness is founded in the mind.The Zen approach to the mind is subtle and useful. While other Buddhist approaches focus on morality, meditation and wisdom as the medicine to relieve the three poisons, Zen is more simple and also more difficult (because it is so subtle and cannot really be taught).The first Zen teaching was almost 2500 years ago when the Buddha held up a flower before a crowd of disciples. All were puzzled by this except for Kashyapa, who smiled in understanding.Many years later in Tang Dynasty China a Zen master referred to a saying of Sojo:Heaven and earth and I are of the same root. The ten thousand things and I are of one subtance.Almost 1000 years after Shakyamuni Buddha, Zen was brought to China by the Indian monk, Bodhidarma in the 5th century. To this legendary figure has been attributed the bringing of zen, tea and kung fu to China. He is purported to have cut off his eyelids to keep from falling asleep and to have spent 9 years in meditation facing a wall at Shaolin Temple in China. His approach to Buddhism was to use the sword of wisdom to cut minds free from rules, trances and scriptures, which had grown in practice and influence in China to that time.Among his many teachings, were written:* The essence of the way is detachment.* Not thinking about anything is Zen.* The goal of those who practice is freedom from appearances.To focus on the mind is to focus on practical living, this very moment and moment to moment. The breath is a useful tool to develop awareness.The mind is intrinsically tranquil. Out of this tranquility, anxiety and confusion are born. If one sees and knows this confusion, then the mind is tranquil once more. We meditate to get rid of things, not to gain things.Every day is a good day.

Excerpts from the Zen Teachings of Huang Po

From 'The Zen Teachings of Huang Po: On the Transmission of Mind'. Edited and translated by John Blofeld. Published by The Buddhist Society, London, 1977. Huang Po was a Chinese monk who lived in China in the ninth century A.D. He is regarded as the intellectual founder of the Japanese Rinzai Zen sect. As can be seen from the following passages, Mind is the most important element to wisdom and enlightment. As to performing the six paramitas and vast numbers of similar practices, or gaining merits as countless as the sands of the Ganges, since your are fundamentally complete in every respect, you should not try to supplement that perfection by such meaningless practices. When there is occasion for them perform them; and when the occasion is passed, remain quiescent . If you are not absolutely convinced that the Mind is the Buddha, and if you are attached to forms, practices and meritorious performances, your way of thinking is false and quite incompatible with the Way. The Mind is the Buddha, nor are there any other Buddhas or any other mind. It is bright and spotless as the void, having no form or appearance whatever.
* * * This Mind is no mind of conceptual thought and it is completely detached from form. So Buddhas and sentient beings do not differ at all. If you can only rid yourselves of conceptual thought, you will have accomplished everything.
* * * Let there be a silent understanding and no more. Away with all thinking and explaining. Then we may say that the Way of Words has been cut off and movements of the mind eliminated. This Mind is the pure Buddha-Source inherent in all men. All wriggling beings possessed of sentient life and all the Buddhas and Boddhisattvas are of this one substance and do not differ. Differences arise from wrong-thinking only and lead to the creation of all kinds of karma.
* * * If an ordinary man, when he is about to die, could only see the five elements of consciousness as void; the four physical elements as not constituting an 'I'; the real Mind as formless and neither coming nor going; his nature as something neither commencing at his birth nor perishing at his death, but as whole and motionless in its very depths; his Mind and environmental objects as one -- if he could really accomplish this, he would receive Enlightenment in a flash. He would no longer be entangled by the Triple World; he would be a World-Transcendor. He would be without even the faintest tendency towards rebirth. If he should behold the glorious sight of all the Buddhas coming to welcome him, surrounded by every kind of gorgeous manifestation, he would feel no desire to approach them. If he should behold all sorts of horrific forms surrounding him, he would experience no terror. He would just be himself, oblivious of conceptual thought and one with the Absolute. He would have attained the state of unconditioned being. This, then is the fundamental principle.
* * * Observe things as they are and don't pay attention to other people. There are some people just like mad dogs barking at everything that moves, even barking when the wind stirs among the grass and leaves.
* * * The Way is not something which can be studied. Study leads to the retention of concepts and so the Way is entirely misunderstood.
* * * Only he who restrains every vestige of empiricism and ceases to rely upon anything can become a tranquil man.
* * * To be absolutely without concepts is called the Wisdom of Dispassion. Every day, whether walking, standing, sitting or lying down, and in all your speech, remain detached from everything within the sphere of phenomena. Whether you speak or merely blink an eye, let it be done with complete dispassion.
* * * Only come to know the nature of your own Mind, in which there is no self and no other, and you will in fact be a Buddha.
* * * When all the Buddhas manifest themselves in the world, they proclaim nothing but the One Mind. Thus, Gotama Buddha silently transmitted to Mahakasyapa the doctrine that the One Mind, which is the substance of all things, is co-extensive with the Void and fills the entire world of phenomena.
* * * Full understanding can come to you only through an inexpressible mystery. The approach to it is called the Gateway of the Stillness beyond all Activity. If you wish to understand, know that a sudden comprehension comes when the mind has been purged of all the clutter of conceptual and discriminatory thought-activity. Those who seek the truth by means of intellect and learning only get further and further away from it. Not till your thoughts cease all their branching here and there, not till you abandon all thoughts of seeking for something, not till your mind is motionless as wood or stone, will you be on the right road to the Gate.
* * * We cannot become what we have always been; we can only become intuitively aware of our original state, previously hidden from us by the clouds of maya.
* * * When thoughts arise, then do all things arise. When thoughts vanish, then do all things vanish.
* * * A perception, sudden as blinking, that subject and object are one, will lead to a deeply mysterious wordless understanding; and by this understanding will you awake to the truth of Zen.
* * * Have no longing to become a future Buddha; your sole concern should be, as thought succeeds thought, to avoid clinging to any of them.
* * * All the visible universe is the Buddha; so are all sounds; hold fast to one principle and all the others are Identical. On seeing one thing, you see ALL. On perceiving any individual's mind, you are perceiving ALL Mind. Obtain a glimpse of one way and ALL ways are embraced in your vision, for there is nowhere at all which is devoid of the Way. When your glance falls upon a grain of dust, what you see is identical with all the vast world systems with their great rivers and mighty hills. To gaze upon a drop of water is to behold the nature of all the waters of the universe.
* * * Develop a mind which rests on no thing whatsoever.

Gatha Dhammapada

Yammakavagga - The Pairs
(verses 1-20)
Mind is the forerunner of (all evil) states. Mind is chief; mind-made are they. If one speaks or acts with wicked mind, suffering follows one, even as the wheel follows the hoof of the draught-ox.
Mind is the forerunner of (all good) states. Mind is chief; mind-made are they. If one speaks or acts with pure mind, AFFECTION follows one, even as one's shadow that never leaves.
``He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,'' in those who harbour such thoughts hatred is not appeased.
``He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,'' in those who do not harbour such thoughts hatred is appeased.
Hate is not overcome by hate; by Love (Metta) alone is hate appeased. This is an eternal law.
The others know not that in this quarrel we perish; those of them who realise it, have their quarrels calmed thereby.
Whoever lives contemplating pleasant things, with senses unrestrained, in food immoderate, indolent, inactive, him verily Mara overthrows, as the wind (overthrows) a weak tree.
Whoever lives contemplating ``the Impurities'', with senses restrained, in food moderate, full of faith, full of sustained energy, him Mara overthrows not, as the wind (does not overthrow) a rocky mountain.
He who is stained (with defilements) without self-control and truthfulness, is not worthy of wearing the yellow robes.
He who is purged of all stain, is well-established in morals and endowed with self-control and truthfulness, is indeed worthy of the yellow robe.
The one, who takes wrong to be right and right to be wrong, and who thinks always of sensual pleasures, cannot be successful in finding the Truth.
The one, who takes right to be right and wrong to be wrong, and who thinks not of sensual pleasures, can be successful in finding the Truth.
Even as rain penetrates an ill-thatched house, so does lust penetrate an undeveloped mind.
Even as rain does not penetrate a well-thatched house, so does lust not penetrate a well-developed mind.
Here he grieves, hereafter he grieves. In both states the evildoer grieves. He grieves, he afflicted, perceiving the impurity of his own deeds.
Here he rejoices, hereafter he rejoices. In both states the welldoer rejoices. He rejoices, exceedingly rejoices, perceiving the purity of his own deeds.
Here he suffers, hereafter he suffers. In both states the evildoer suffers. ``Evil have I done'' (thinking thus), he suffers. Furthermore, he suffers, having gone to a woeful state.
Here he is happy, hereafter he is happy. In both states the welldoer is happy. ``Good have I done'' (thinking thus), he is happy. Furthermore, is he happy, having gone to a blissful state.
Though much he recites the Sacred Texts, but acts not accordingly, that heedless man is like a cowherd who counts others' kine. He has no share in the fruits of the Holy life.
Though little he recites the Sacred Texts, but acts in accordance with the teaching, forsaking lust, hatred and ignorance, truly knowing, with mind well freed, clinging to naught here and hereafter, he shares the fruits of the Holy life.

Appamadavagga - Heedfulness
(verses 21-32)
Heedfulness is the path to the Deathless, (Nibbana) heedlessness is the path to death. The heedful do not die; the heedless are like unto the dead.
Distinctly understanding this (difference) the wise (intent) on heedfulness rejoice in heedfulness, delighting in the realm of Ariyas.
The constantly meditative, the ever steadfastly ones realize the bondfree, supreme Nibbana.
The man who is strenuous, mindful, of pure conduct, and careful, who restrains himself, who acts after due deliberations and practices Right Livelihood, becomes famous.
By sustained effort, earnestness, discipline, and self-control, let the wise man make for himself an island, which no flood overwhelms.
The ignorant, foolish folk indulge in heedlessness; the wise man guards heedfulness as the greatest treasure.
Indulge not in heedlessness; have no intimacy with sensuous delights. Verily the heedful, meditative person obtains abundant bliss.
When a man banishes heedlessness by heedfulness, he becomes wise and is free from sorrow. He sees clearly the sorrowing people as one who stands on the hill looking down on the plains.
Heedful among the heedless, watchful among the sleeping, the wise man outstrips the foolish man as a race horse outstrips an old horse.
Maghava, the king of gods, attained such great supremacy over the gods through heedfulness. Heedfulness is always praised and heedlessness is always blamed.
Even as a fire consumes all obstacles, both great and small, a monk, who delights in heedfulness and who views heedlessness with fear, consumes attachments, both great and small.
A monk, who delights in heedfulness and who views heedlessness with fear, will not fail in the end to, to attain Nibbana.

Cittavagga - The Mind
(verses 33-43)
The fickle, unsteady mind, so hard to guard, so hard to control, the wise man straightens, as the fletcher straightens the arrow.
Like a fish that is drawn from its watery abode and thrown upon land, even so does this mind flutter. Hence should the realm of the passions be shunned.
The mind is hard to check. It is swift and wanders at will. To control it is good. A controlled mind is conducive to happiness.
The mind is very hard to perceive, extremely subtle and wanders at will. Let the wise person guard it; a guarded mind is conducive to happiness.
Faring far, wandering alone, bodiless, lying in a cave, is the mind. Those who subdue it are freed from the bond of Mara.
He whose mind is not steadfast, he who knows not true doctrine, he whose confidence wavers - the wisdom of such a one will never be perfect.
He whose mind is not soaked (by lust), he who is not affected (by haunt), he who has transcended both good and evil - for such a vigilant one there is no fear.
Realising that this body is (as fragile) as a jar, establishing this mind (as firm) as a (fortified) city, he should attack Mara with the weapon of wisdom. He should guard his conquest and be without attachment.
Before long, alas! This body will lie upon the ground, cast aside, devoid of consciousness, even as a useless charred log.
Whatever (harm) a foe may do to a foe, or a hater to a hater, an ill-directed mind can do one far greater (harm).
What neither mother, nor father, nor any other relative can do, a well-directed mind does and thereby elevates one.

Pupphavagga - Flowers
(verses 44-59)
Who will be able to understand himself, this world, heaven and hell? Who will fully realize the well preached Doctrine, which is like a garland fixed by a clever garland maker?
The disciple in training (sekha) will be able to understand himself, this world, heaven and hell. He will realize the well preached Doctrine, which is like a garland fixed by a clever garland maker.
Knowing that this body is like foam, and comprehending its mirage-nature, one should destroy the flowershafts of sensual passions (Mara), and pass beyond the sight of the King of Death.
The man who gathers flowers (of sensual pleasure), whose mind is distracted, death carries off as a great flood sweeps away a sleeping village.
The man who gathers flowers (of sensual pleasure), whose mind is distracted, and who is insatiate in desires, the Destroyer brings under his sway.
As a bee without harming the flower, its colours or scent, flies away, collecting only the honey, even so should the sage wander in the village.
Not the faults of others, nor what others have done or left undone, but one's own deeds, done and left undone, should one consider.
As a flower beautiful and brilliant of hue, but without fragrance, even so fruitless is the well-spoken word of one who does not practise it.
As a flower beautiful, brilliant of hue and full of fragrance too, even so fruitful is the well-spoken word of one who does practise it.
As from a heap of flowers many a garland is made even so many a good deed should be done by one born as a human being.
The perfume of flowers blows not against the wind, not does the fragrance of sandalwood, tagara and jasmine, but the fragrance of the virtuous blows against the wind; the virtuous man pervades every direction.
Sandalwood, tagara, lotus, jasmine: above all these kinds of fragrance, the perfume of virtue is by far the best.
Of little account is the fragrance of tagara or sandal; the fragrance of the virtuous, which blows even amongst the gods, is supreme.
Those, who are virtuous and who live a life of heedfulness, are set free through attaining perfect wisdom and Mara cannot find a way to them.
The lotus will grow even in rubbish thrown away. It will delight the heart with its sweet smell and beauty.
Just like a lotus, the disciple, by his wisdom, will shine among them that are ignorant, blind and unconverted.


Balavagga - The Fool
(verses 60-75)
Long is the night to the wakeful; long is the league to the weary; long is the samsara to the foolish who know not the Sublime Truth.
If, as the disciple fares along, he meets no companion who is better or equal, let him firmly pursue his solitary career. There is no fellowship with the foolish.
``Sons have I; wealth have I'': Thus is the fool worried; Verily, he himself is not his own. Whence sons? Whence wealth?
The fool who knows that he is a fool is for that very reason a wise man; the fool who thinks that he is wise is called a fool indeed.
Though a fool, through all his life, associates with a wise man, he no more understands the Dhamma than a spoon (tastes) the flavour of soup.
Though an intelligent person, associates with a wise man for only a moment, he quickly understands the Dhamma as the tongue (tastes) the flavour of soup.
Fools of little wit move about with the very self as their own foe, doing evil deeds the fruit of which is bitter.
That deed is not well done when, after having done it, one repents, and when weeping, with tearful face, one reaps the fruit thereof.
That deed is well done when, after having done it, one repents not, and when, with joy and pleasure, one reaps the fruit thereof.
As sweet as honey is an evil deed, so thinks the fool so long as it ripens not; but when it ripens, then he comes to grief.
Month after month, a fool may eat only as much food as can be picked up on the tip of a kusa grass blade; but he is not worth a sixteenth part of them who have comprehended the Truth.
Verily, an evil deed committed does not immediately bear fruit, just as milk curdles not at once; smouldering, it follows the fool like fire covered with ashes.
To his ruin, indeed, the fool gains knowledge and fame; they destroy his bright lot and cleave his head.
The fool will desire undue reputation, precedence among monks, authority in the monasteries, honour among other families.
Let both laymen and monks think, ``by myself was this done; in everywork, great or small, let them refer to me''. Such is the ambition of the fool; his desires and pride increase.
Surely, the path that leads to wordly gain in one, and the path that leads to Nibbana is another; understanding this, the Bhikkhu, the disciple of the Buddha, should not rejoice in worldly favours, but cultivate detachment.

Panditavagga - The Wise Man
(verses 76-89)
Should one see a wise man, who, like a revealer of treasure, points out faults and reproves; let one associate with such a wise person; it will be better, not worse, for him who associates with such a one.
Let him advise, instruct, and dissuade one from evil; truly pleasing is he to the good, displeasing is he to the bad.
Associate not with evil friends, associate not with mean men; associate with good friends, associate with noble men.
He who practises the Dhamma abides in happiness with mind pacified; the wise man ever delights in the Dhamma revealed by the Ariyas.
Irrigators lead the water; fletchers fashion the shaft; carpenters carve the wood; the wise discipline themselves.
As a solid rock is not shaken by the wind, even so the wise remain unshaken amidst blame and praise.
Just as a deep lake is clear and still, even so, on hearing the teachings, the wise become exceedingly peaceful.
The good give up (attachment for) everything; the saintly prattle not with sensual craving; whether affected by happiness or by pain, the wise show neither elation nor depression.
Neither for the sake of oneself nor for the sake of another (does a wise person do any wrong); he should not desire son, wealth, or kingdom (by doing wrong); by unjust means he should not seek his own success. Then (only) such a one is indeed virtuous, wise and righteous.
Few among men are they who cross to the further shore. The other folk only run up and down the bank on this side.
But those who act rightly accordingly to the teaching, which is well expounded, those are they who will reach the Beyond-Nibbana (crossing) the realm of passions, so hard to cross.
A wise man renounces evil and sensual pleasure and he does all meritorious work in order to attain Nibbana. He becomes a homeless one.
By having no attachment and desires and by forsaking sensual pleasures, a wise man gets rid of his impurities.
Those, who practise the seven Factors (Mindfulness, Investigation of the Dhamma, Energy, Rapture, Calmness, Concentration, Equanimity), and have freed themselves from attachments, attain Nibbana.

Analys for Buddhism

Buddhism and Group AnalysisBen Davidson and Alyss Thomas

Abstract
The two disciplines of Buddhism and Group Analysis share some important common ground. The writers, two group analysts who have also been involved in extensive Buddhist training and practice, believe that the rich and diverse resources from Buddhist theory and practice are directly applicable to the theory and practice of Group Analysis. This article is the fruit of a dialogue between them, and represents an initial attempt to chart some simple comparisons and contrasts between Buddhism and Group Analysis.
Introduction
In recent decades, an increasing number of works have represented encounters between psychotherapy and Buddhism. One of the earliest such encounters can be found in Jung's introduction to Evan Wentz's (1927) translation of the classic Buddhist text, the 'Bardo Thodol' (The Tibetan Book of the Dead). In this, Jung claims that the hallucinatory journey described, through the Bardo state (space between lives) is the immediate post-death experience common to all man. This is essentially a journey into and through the symbolic forms of the collective unconscious. Many more recent encounters can be see as cross-pollenisations between Buddhism and the human potential/humanistic psychology movements. Eric Fromm, for example, famous psychotherapist and existential philosopher, found Buddhism a fertile resource for his writing, so much so that his 1957 text, 'The art of loving', was subsequently taken up by the Western Buddhist Order as a particularly good exposition of some fundamental Buddhist beliefs, and became a set text for those working towards ordination. More recently, a range of writers whose work has spanned both disciplines has included Coltart (1996), Watson (1999) and Epstein (1995), the latter of whom is perhaps best known for his Thoughts without a thinker (1995). There have also been compilations of essays published in the past few years such as The Couch and the Tree - Dialogues in Psychoanalysis and Buddhism (Molino, 1998), which includes thoughtful and perceptive articles by psychoanalysts such as Adam Phillips, Michael Eigen and Joyce McDougall. One interesting common thread amongst these publications is the attempt to draw parallels between some of the more esoteric developments in quantum physics and the transcendental visions of Buddhism.
Various training institutes and conferences are also establishing links, for example the Karuna Institute in Devon, UK, alone in the UK to offer a UKCP registered psychotherapy training programme based on Buddhist psychology and practice. Likewise the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado, which offers Buddhist psychotherapy trainings to an advanced academic standard. Between these two there has even been some exchange of staff and practice. One of the current authors, having graduated at Karuna in 1992, was involved in setting up supervision training, based on the model used at Naropa.
The welcome Buddhism has received in these quarters may be related to the fact that it is not so much a religion in the traditional Western sense, as a practical philosophy that combines a focus on the politics and craft of everyday living and interaction, with a substantial tradition of psychological theory and training. In addition, all this is within the context of a strong sense of pilgrimage, and all of these (politics, psychology and pilgrimage) are backed by meditation, in its various forms1, as a central tool.
In the following pages, some of the overlaps and contrasts between Buddhism and psychotherapy generally will be outlined, following which a more specific account of the similarities and contrasts between Buddhism and Group Analysis will be sketched.
Overlaps and contrasts
Psychological development and spiritual training are not usually understood as even overlapping, let alone identical, and they certainly have different visions behind and horizons ahead of their practices. Nevertheless, both Buddhism and Group Analysis offer explanations as to why we suffer and what can be done about it, and both offer the vision of a better life along with a range of prescriptions for living it. They are both characterised by a focus on:
1. emotional and mental pain and its causes2. transcendence of suffering by letting go restricting coping styles and beliefs3. the relationship of the subject to his or her sense of self4. the interdependent nature of the individual5. the demarcation between mental health and mental illness.6. doctrinal pragmatism7. balancing forms of intervention - challenge and support
1/ Clarification of the causes of emotional and mental pain
An important tenet of Buddhism is that the realisation and acceptance of Dukkha (Pali -suffering) is the beginning of the road to personal freedom. Similarly, psychotherapy prescribes the bringing into consciousness of the painful experience we try to avoid - honest communication with ourselves - as the foundation of any attempt to move on from that pain.
Insight is, however, a point of both similarity and departure for the two traditions. Analysts could be described as attempting to cure suffering by facilitating insight into how things have come to be as they are, while Buddhists might be encouraged to swim headlong through suffering with their eyes open, in order simply to awaken to things as they really are. In this context, it is evident how a Buddhist emphasis in psychotherapy can encourage the process of simply staying with and feeling difficult experience, rather than making either gross or subtle attempts to change, treat or fix it.
This is not to suggest that psychotherapy denies suffering, or, for that matter, that the wish to avoid it is anything other than natural. David Smail, for example, an eclectic psychotherapist, conveys beautifully his sense of the merit in developing our awareness of pain, as follows:
'…The examination and clearing of the confusions which surround the person's deceived or self?deceiving view of what lies behind "symptoms" [may] bring them face to face with circumstances in their lives which are distressing, and which they can only ignore at the cost of "neurotic" suffering… To me, it seems more constructive, and essentially more hopeful, to recognise that real difficulties, real evils and real pain arise in the world around us through our conduct towards one another than it is to resort, albeit unawares, to self?deceiving strategies which, for example, allow 'illness ' to provide the explanation, and indeed the form, of our misery.'
(Smail, 1984 pp.2-4)
Perhaps the difference is that Buddhism portrays suffering as intrinsically fundamental to our human predicament, whereas psychotherapists tend to treat the causes of suffering as arising within an individual's personal life and circumstances. Buddhists distinguish between pain and suffering: they say there is pain, but it is how we deal with this that causes the suffering, not the pain in itself. The aims of Buddhist practice are not modest: they are the relief from and the eventual cessation of suffering altogether.
In any event, the Buddha, like the analytic psychotherapy tradition, promoted the idea that clarification regarding the real conditions behind our suffering might offer the greatest hope of liberation or release. Among his greatest legacies are the Buddhist teachings on Pratitya Samutpada (Pali - conditioned co-production, or interdependent origination). These describe a perpetual circle of linked experiences, in the context of which we find ourselves driven to enact the desire and hatred we feel in response to stimuli, even while it is just such reactions that 'cause' the painful or pleasurable experience in the first place. In particular, sensory (including mental) stimuli occasion affect (seen as 'neutral' feelings of pleasure and pain); these, in turn, occasion craving/aversion (introducing a stronger sense of being drawn to and away from something); in turn, craving/aversion occasions clinging (i.e. activity aimed at perpetuating or curtailing the source of the affect); and such activity occasions more stimuli and affect. This process continues from second to second, lifetime to lifetime, driving the whole process of birth, ageing and death. The suggestion is, that finding ways to develop the sense of reflective space between feeling (neutral affect) and action (perpetuating or curtailing the source of the affect) offers a way out of this endless cycle.
The idea of bringing feelings into consciousness and containing them, rather than enacting them blindly, as a path to mental health, is familiar to every analyst.
Another feature of interdependent origination, is that on this endless circle of linked phenomena there are no first causes. Instead, everything is contextual and determined by everything else. This is also paralleled in both analytic psychology (synchronicity) and, of particular relevance here, in group analysis, if one considers the way co-arising phenomena within a group are understood in terms of resonance and mirroring. It is not that one group member causes another to experience similar emotions, but that somehow the two resonate with each other.
2/ Transcendence of suffering by letting go restricting coping styles (ethics)
Both psychotherapists and Buddhist practitioners are intensely preoccupied with ethics as a foundation for development (even if the former tend not to acknowledge this - Adshead, 1999). Although we psychotherapists are inclined to see our approach as ethically neutral, our essential positions are ethical ones. For example, the position that individuals ought to progress from an absorption in self to awareness of other experiencing beings as subjects; or the position that individuals ought to progress from the tendency to idealise/denigrate to an ability to see others as good enough; or even just the position that the development of a robust ego is a good thing.
From a Buddhist perspective, though, the development of an ethical sense is not only about developing awareness of oneself and others, society, beyond primitive narcissism or a limited horizon of the mother. Neither is it just to do with growth of a socially patterned superego to effect proper ego development and social functioning. While competency in interacting with oneself and others is important, the development of an ethical sense represents for Buddhists the creation of a platform of psychological integration and emotional vibrancy, from which a qualitatively different level of development might occur.
'Ethical' is a rough translation of the Pali word kusala, which, more literally, means skilful. One has to work skilfully to calm and integrate the unconscious and conscious mind, rather than mentally or physically acting out productions of the unconscious. Encouragement and guidance in ethical development is offered as a sort of skill set, a set of means to allow meditative consciousness to expand.
Most ethical codes in Buddhism are divided into guidance regarding three areas of conduct - conduct pertaining to body, speech and mind. The ethical focus on different areas of 'right speech' is broadly seen as a training in skilful communication with oneself and others. This is, of course, also the function of clinical supervision in group analysis, and, indeed, of group analysis itself.
Psychotherapy seems more reluctant to openly acknowledge its ethical base. Ethics endorsed by psychotherapists tend to be explicit only in relation to the guidelines for proper management of professional power relationships. Some acknowledge the extent to which their work contains implicit injunctions in how to live (Adshead, 1999), or even, as Szasz and Schaler argue, constitutes, as a whole, from start to finish, 'conversations in secular ethics' (Schaler, 1998). For the most part, we therapists seem to like the idea that we are being non-judgemental and see holding a neutral position as a good way to be, which is in itself an ethical position that brings up inevitable ethical dilemmas.To summarise, both Buddhism and Group Analysis have strong ethical views about what is good interaction. For Buddhists, though, once one's conduct in relation to oneself and others is sufficiently harmonious to allow the emergence of a sense of meditative calm, one is only just beginning. The task ahead involves the use of this state to attain Prajna, Wisdom. And one does this by, among other means, developing a vision of the emptiness of self.
3/ The relationship of the subject to sense of self - Who am I?
A fundamental tenet of Buddhist thought is the inherent emptiness of the self. In essence, the argument goes, the self, or our sense of who we are, does not have any inherent reality apart from what we ourselves ascribe to it. Our belief in our 'real' or essential self is a flimsy veil we use to protect ourselves from the frightening truth of our insubstantial and impermanent natures.
This sort of approach is somewhat confusing for those of us who struggle for years to build up a robust and confident self, capable of meeting the challenges of life without falling apart. The thought that there is really 'no one there' is too alarming to countenance, when the road behind is littered with false selves dropped in the search for an elusive 'real me'.
This represents, again, both a similarity and a point of departure between the two traditions. On the one hand, analytic psychotherapy, like Buddhism, is very much concerned with raising awareness of our false selves, and the dissolution of whatever fears lie behind our need to cling to them. But for psychotherapists, this work rests on an assumption that a strong and true sense of self, a robust ego, is something to aim for. For students of Buddhism, on the other hand, the aim is to let go of one's belief in any fixed or enduring identity, and to realise that one is not one's ego. One's ego is a metaphor, or a construct, however useful or necessary, and over-identification with one's ego is seen as a cause of further suffering. We create our reality from moment to moment through our perceptions and habitual reactions to them, which only offer the illusion of an enduring identity.
4/ Interdependence - Sangha and Matrix
So far, little has been written on the interface of Buddhist theory and practice with a specifically group approach to psychotherapy. The concept of Sangha, community, is embedded within Buddhist practice and the personal transmission of a living tradition is, for many Buddhist schools, the sine qua non of Buddhism. The Sangha is, in fact, one of the three jewels, or three most valuable things in which to take refuge, of the entire Buddhist tradition2.
Individual practitioners are not seen in isolation but as a node in a network, as in the metaphor of multi-faceted jewels hanging in the net of the Indian Goddess Indra, each one reflecting all of the others and their reflections of each other. This is analogous to the Foulkesian concept of the matrix, the invisible web of connectedness that holds all communication, both conscious and unconscious, between members of groups.
'...our contemporary focus on the isolated individual and his ego is... a misleading abstraction except when viewed as part of the total network of communication in which he has his being and from which he derives his meaning.
Skynner, 1971 p.192
Although some group analysts might baulk at the construction of the matrix being extended so far, Skynner, in a book review of Alan Watts' Psychotherapy East and West writes that:
'The adult or mature version of primal narcissism is... "cosmic consciousness", or the shift from ego?centric awareness to the feeling that one's identity is the whole field of the organism in its environment.
op. cit.
Thus Group Analysis and Buddhism are seen, by some at least, to share some essential aims and ambitions.
5/ The demarcation between mental health and mental illness
It may be of interest to consider the group-analytic and the Buddhist views relating the demarcation between sanity and madness.
To the extent that Group Analysis is practiced as a form of psychotherapy, it probably employs the same sort of continuum of distress and well being as other such traditions, thinking of the mental health of those under treatment in such vague terms as the level of alienation from their experience or, conversely, their authenticity. It probably also uses a disability model, considering the level of social dysfunction presented. And again, to the extent Group Analysis works alongside psychiatry, it is likely to utilise similar concepts of mental health and illness as those categorised within the psychiatric manuals, maybe even employing the currently fashionable and budget-driven tri-partite construction of 'the worried well', the mentally ill (ie psychiatrically diagnosable but functioning adequately) and those with serious mental illness (SMI), i.e. those with a severe and enduring psychopathology likely to require, periodically, intense in-patient psychiatric treatment and follow-up.
In contrast, a pivotal stage on the Path for Buddhists is that of Stream Entry, where the degree of insight into reality (things as they really are) has reached a point where the disciple need make no further effort to progress, carried as s/he is inexorably towards the goal of Enlightenment by the sheer strength of the current. From this point onwards is said to be sanity, whereas up to this point of Insight is said to be essentially one form or another of madness. This applies equally whether we are relatively well-adjusted, experiencing a modicum of neurotic suffering, or suffering full-blown psychosis - all in these states are essentially as mad as each other. The fetters that one (Hinayana) representation of the Path claims must be broken to achieve this state of Stream Entry, include dependence on a fixed view of oneself, that is as unchanging and static (as per section 3/ above); dependence on ethical guidelines as ends in themselves, rather than as tools to be used to grow (as per section 2/ above); and 'doubt and indecision', which might be seen as the inability to let go one's habitual patterns of thought, communication and conduct, so as to allow the development of space between affect and enactment of one's response to it (as per section 1/ above).
Evidently, as suggested in section 1/ above, the horizons of Buddhism and Group Analysis are very different in this respect.
6/ Doctrinal pragmatism - Janus and the raft
One feature of group analysis, in contrast to individual psychotherapy, is its 'Janusian' perspective. Like the mythical god (Janus), who looks in two directions simultaneously, Group Analysis studies its object (the group) from a position astride the boundary, by looking simultaneously within and without. The analysis of the group's constituent parts and their inter?relations (looking within) goes hand in hand with a synthesis of the group (and its parts), along with other such entities, into the context within which they all co?exist (looking without). Context - political, economic, social and cultural - is as critical in fully appreciating the individual and his intimate relations as the internalised object relations that have formed him. As Foulkes writes:
'Groups ... cannot be understood except in their relation to other groups and in the context of the conditions in which they exist. We cannot isolate biological, social, cultural and economic factors ... mental life is the expression of all these forces...'
(1975 p.37)
Similarly, the history of Buddhism has been described in relation to the tension between two tendencies, looking first without to see the necessary context of our being, also inward to realise we are not a single thing-in-itself, but a composite. Sangharakshita (198o) calls these, respectively, the 'dynamic-synthetical', and the 'spatio-analytic' tendencies, since the former invites us to see how our being is inseparable from the context of ongoing processes that link us all, while the latter is a more reductionist approach to analyse and dissect our being into 'a transitory assemblage of evanescent [and ever smaller] parts' (Sangarakshita, 1980 p.87).
The Mahayana tradition (the Great Way), one of the three major historical movements within Buddhism, is overall concerned with bringing about an awakening to things as they really are by understanding that all manner of phenomena - from an empire to a mood of elation; from a marriage to a mountain; from a pillar box to a person to a photon - have no reality in themselves, but are dependent on the synthesis of a multitude of conditions. They are not only transient; they are, in the true sense of the word, insubstantial, without self. Extending this to the person, it is evident that the family, the culture, the society and so on, represent such an intricately woven and necessary contextual web for the person's being, that one glimpses the reality of the proposition that there are no individuals, only groups.
Meditation on interconnectedness might involve focusing on something analogous to this, but easier to grasp, say, a candle flame - what is it without wax, wick, oxygen and heat; or a whirlpool - what is it without flowing water and obstruction? Neither are substantial, neither are things-in-themselves, but exist only in the context of the conditions that give rise to them. They are nothing but those conditions. All of them pass back into the chaos whence they came, other forms taking their place. Same with us.
In contrast, meditators following the Hinayana, or Narrow Way, attempt to deconstruct their sense of self by analysing it down - persons are not an identity, but rather are five constituent parts - corporeality, choice, affect, cognition and subjectivity. And again, each of these can be analysed down further - corporeality might feel like a thing-in-itself, but in reality we are made up of bone, nail, blood, sinew, skin, etc. etc. Many meditation practices are concerned with waking up to the transience of our being as its constituent parts come together and then break up again.
These two groups of Buddhist traditions span the continuum between the two group-analytic approaches described above, looking without and looking within. What Sangharakshita terms the dynamic-synthetical approach is equivalent to the synthesis of the group (and its parts), along with other such entities, into their shared context. What Sangharakshita terms the static-analytic approach parallels the analysis of the group's constituent part, members' inter?relations and the internalised object relations that have formed them.
The way these two major, and apparently contradictory philosophies happily co-exist within Buddhism, is somewhat akin to the group-analytic, Janusian perspective described above. Both traditions could be seen as standing at the boundaries of our being, looking both within and without to understand its nature.
Despite the argument elsewhere in this issue about the lack of theoretical rigour in group analysis, and its tendency to be 'all things to all people' (Carter, 2002 p.??), its flexibility in this respect has to be seen as a strength. Buddhism, too, sees this feature as an asset. In the collection of sutras known as the Majjhima-Nikaya, the metaphor is developed of Buddhism as a raft. If one needs to cross a river, rafts are very useful, but once home and dry on the other side, about to forge a path through the jungle, one is wise to leave the raft behind, rather than carry it on one's head. Similarly spiritual teachings - they are there to serve a purpose, not as ends in themselves, and one does well to dispense with them once they have served it. In a devotional recitation practiced by Buddhists daily worldwide, the qualities of the three jewels are enumerated, in the context of which Buddhism itself is described as something 'to be tested against experience'. Buddhism is, 'as the Buddha explicitly declares3 … essentially that which conduces to the attainment of Enlightenment… whatever conduces to the attainment of Enlightenment is [Buddhism]… The criteria of what is or what is not Buddhism is ultimately pragmatic.' (Sangharakshita, 1980 p.192)
Perhaps it is therefore of little surprise that just as Buddhism has never engaged in a holy war, but instead happily integrates aspects of other traditions that prove useful, Group Analysis, similarly, is less rigid about its boundaries, and indeed, less professionally imperialistic than some other therapeutic modalities.
7/ Balancing forms of intervention - support and challenge
Both Buddhism and Group Analysis adopt an attitude of protecting frailty at the same time as courting exposure, seeking to develop a conducive, nurturing environment, as well as engaging individuals and the group gradually with the experience of that which is most feared.
Although in the battle for territory between analytic and behavioural approaches, practitioners of the former tend to ignore this, Freud wrote of phobias thus:
"One can hardly ever master a phobia if one waits till the patient lets the analysis influence him to give it up… one succeeds only when one can induce them… to go about alone and to struggle with their anxiety."
Freud, 1919 pp.399-400
This is no doubt the case whether the phobia relates to something as specific as a spider or something as abstract as intimacy, as the object of fear and avoidance.
Just as Freud counselled a behavioural approach within psychodynamic theory, it is interesting how in recent decades in behavioural psychotherapy the preferred method of treatment has changed from flooding to graded exposure, emphasising the importance of a relationship where the experience of exposure can be gradually debriefed. Perhaps this sort of lessening polarisation amongst psychotherapeutic approaches makes it possible to see an overall balance in the interventions offered, both within and between the therapies. As an approach that arguably encompasses aspects of all the therapeutic modalities, Group Analysis could be said to represent this holistic stance par excellence.
Bringing the focus of this section now back to the comparison between Group Analysis and Buddhism, it is instructive to chart the parallels between the Buddhist view of the five skhandas (the five psycho-physical arenas of our being), and the main therapeutic approaches (see fig. 1)

Figure 1 - parallels between the Buddhist five skhandas and Western therapeutic approaches
Five Skhandas (Buddhism)
Therapeutic Model
form/corporeality
medicine - pharmacotherapy
behaviour/choice
behavioural psychotherapy
affect/emotion
dynamic psychotherapy
cognition/perception
cognitive psychotherapy
consciousness/raw subjectivity
existential psychotherapy
But specifically in relation to the tension between the need for support/comfort/containment and the need for exposure/anxiety/challenge, Buddhism appears to have struggled, in its 2,500-year history, with what is an appropriate degree of anxiety to facilitate personal growth, as do so many analytic approaches.
One of the Buddha's most commonly used formulations describes the experience of Enlightenment as 'Knowledge and Vision of Things As They Really Are'. The way they are is characterised by three phenomena - Dukkha (unsatisfactory or linked to suffering - see section 1/ above), Anatta (insubstantial or without their own essential being - see section 3/ above) and Sankhara (impermanent).
The central quality of impermanence, has, in the two and a half thousand years since the Buddha lived, been the focus of many meditation practices, including the 'Contemplation of the Decomposition of a Corpse'. For one who has attained a sufficient degree of psychological integration and emotional vibrancy, this focus is intended to impel him or her forward towards Enlightenment. But just as there has to be a sufficiency of nurturing from the world if our experience of its separate being is to be transformed from envy into gratitude, a foundation of psychological and emotional maturity is required for the impact of Insight into impermanence to be positive. When the Buddha once returned to a cremation ground to review the progress of two disciples he had left there, he found that one had committed suicide and the other gone psychotic. Evidently, seeing things as they really are is not a comfortable experience and determining whether someone will attain spiritual transformation or psychic disintegration as a result is a close call… graded exposure seems to be indicated.
Conclusion
Some scholars and clinicians perceive an overlap between Buddhism and Group Analysis but feel more comfortable employing Buddhist ideas and practices as tools for professional development rather than therapeutic intervention. Watson (1998), for example, suggests that Buddhist meditation practice has most to offer psychotherapists, rather than patients, as a method of being able to monitor the full range of one's mental and emotional states without plunging into reactivity. Through meditation practice one develops an open and friendly attitude to one's own inner experience, which enables one to respond openly, fully and mindfully to what occurs in the relational field between psychotherapists and patients. This type of mental training can help one to really listen without evaluating and categorising too quickly, as also described by Groves (1998).
Even the cursory sketch above, however, suggests that these disciplines of Buddhism and Group Analysis might have much more to offer each other. The experience of the authors has been that they may indeed even need each other. Buddhist meditators often get stuck in psychological conditioning, which 'spiritual' work alone may not release, and which meditation practices may subtly reinforce; similarly, groups of Buddhists are every bit as prone to anti-group, or other destructive group-specific processes as any other group. Attempting to follow an advanced spiritual path in the absence of psychological health, or in the context of groups which are not functioning well, can be disastrous. Conversely, psychological work can lack inspiration and become dry, leading to more adaptive behavioural patterns but not profound and lasting insight, flexible and spontaneous awareness, permanent loosening of defensive structures or the sort of transformation of our being aspired to by Buddhism. Clinical work with no spiritual awareness, which does not involve itself with a sense of mystery, impermanence or the ineffable, can neglect the importance of being over having, doing or achieving, or become stagnant through lack of horizons beyond the translation of neurotic suffering into ordinary misery.
But even if the synergy described above between Group Analysis and Buddhism were better appreciated, what of the bigger picture? As the new millennium now gets underway, a backdrop comes into focus, representing perhaps what Berke has called 'the Tyranny of Malice': Religious bigotry, cultural imperialism, patriotic fervour and hatred appear to be advancing on the ability of humankind to maintain what little reflective space there is between experience and reaction. Meanwhile, both Buddhism and Group Analysis offer the paradox that while the insight and awakening available within what reflective space there is are but a hair's breadth away, such treasures nevertheless have to be worked for with immense care and mindfulness, in the context of openhearted community.
At such a point in our history, it could be that these two traditions have a particularly important role in keeping humankind from perpetuating its destructive tendencies. The authors' over-riding sense in their own groups over the few weeks since the events of 11th September 2001 is of what a healthy and resourceful context a well-functioning group provides. The impression of people in their groups reaching out to each other through the destruction and fear, trying to raise their consciousness of each other and of the way the world really is, underlines the importance of Sangha, interconnectedness, and offers not only solace, but the prospect of a point of leverage where we might all exercise some constructive influence on our worlds.


1. Meditation comes in two flavours: Samatha and Vipassana. Samatha (calming) practice is sometimes likened to emotional integration, while Vipassana (Insight) practice is seen metaphorically as the erection of a lightening rod, through which can be absorbed transformational Insight into the way things are. Without sufficient Samatha, the effects of Vipassana can be disastrous. (back)
2. The other two jewels are the Buddha, or the ideal of Enlightenment itself, and the Dharma, or the path by which one might grow toward that goal. (back)
3. Majjhima-Nikaya, I. 134. (Woodward's translation - Some Sayings of the Buddha, pp.316-7) (back)

References
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Coltart, N. (1996) The Baby and the Bathwater, Karnac, London, chapter 8, 'Buddism and Psychonalaysis Revisited'
Epstein, M. (1995) Thoughts without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective, Basic Books, New York
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Freud, S. (1919) "The future prospects of psychoanalytic therapy" Standard Edition Vol.11, Hogarth Press, 1957
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Fromm, E. (1960) Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism
Groves, Dh. P. (1998) Doing and being - A Buddhist perspective on craving and addictions in Barker, P. & Davidson, B. (eds.) Psychiatric Nursing: Ethical Strife, Arnold, London.Jung C.J. (1927) Psychological Commentary on Evan Wentz's translation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead
Molino, A. (ed) (1998) The Couch and the Tree, Dialogues in Psychoanalysis and Buddhism, Constable, London
Sangarakshita, Bh. (1980) A survey of Buddhism, Shambala, Boulder; Windhorse, London.
Schaler, J. (1998) Freedom, psychiatry and responsibility Chapter 2 pp. 19-25 in Barker, P. & Davidson, B. (eds.) Psychiatric Nursing: Ethical Strife Arnold, London.
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Watson, G. (1999) I, Mine and Views of the Self in The Psychology of Awakening: Buddhism, Science and our Day to Day Lives, Watson, G. (ed.), Batchelor & Claxton, Rider, London
Woodward, F.L. (trans) (1973) Some Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, London

Dhamma Lok (True World)

Dhamma for our life everyday
EXtract By Venerable Dhiravinayo Bhikkhu
The term Dhamma in pali literature is a very profound word in both meaning and usage. As a matter of fact it was divulged in various ways in many Athakathas.
Athasalini athakatha fully explained the meaning of the term Dhamma as learning, cause, dignity, void of sentient life (Sattajiva)and further discussed the natural characteristics of it. According to its explanation, the Dhamma is to be called due to this circumstance which brings its nature, and it should be brought by causes but only by right way.
Besides the above explanation, Pali Dictionary made some adds about the meaning of Dhmma as principle, wisdom, the thing to be understood, rightness, natural state, merit and solemnity.
According to silakkhandha Athakatha Dhamma has a supreme quality which can lead one, who follows the Dhamma, to heavenly stage ultimate bliss, not causing to fall into evil state. The above statements are to be met with the propriety in Pali literature. More discussions may be made here. Ananda, the favorite disciple, knowing that the Buddha will attain into Mahaparinibbana after three months, was shocked with anxiety. If the Buddha does not remain alive, who will instruct world beings? The whole Buddha Sasana will arrive at the absence of the teacher. While Ananda states this, the Buddha said, "Ananda, I have preached and constituted Dhamma and Vinaya. They will be the great teachers not only for you but also posterities after my Parinibbana. Besides, after the Buddha passed away, Mahatheras became responsible for restoration of the whole Sasana. Some Bhikkhus like Subaddha started to critise the Sikkhapada (the monastic rules)
prescribed by the Buddha, with contempt. Even they started to talk about the Buddha's Parinibbana with great elation. Being ocular to these events, Mahakassapa Mahathera seriously urged the assembly of sangha in Kushinagara, where the Buddha attained to Mahaparinibbana. Brethren, I exhort, let us hold Sanghiti(Sangha Council),before the Dhamma disappears, Adhamma ecerging, before Vinaya disappears, Aninaya emerging, before Dhammavadi decrease, Adhammavadi increasing and, before vinayavadi decrease, on seeing this fact Dhamma is not only the teacher of the Buddha Sasana on behalf of himself, but also if the Dhamma disappears, the Adhamma will appear in the world, and corruption will enhance, and Adhammawill increase, after then the Buddha Sasana and the whole world certainly will come to ruin.
The Buddha founded the Sangha community with the five Vaggi at Migadavana near Varanasi. He laid down Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta and Anatta Lakkhana Sutta as his constitutional and philosophical doctrines in the stage of theory and practice in front of deities and men. Yassa and his 54friendsfrom Baranasi came into membership of Bhikkhu Sangha in a flash realizing the pure doctrines. The Buddha instructed those Bhikkhus for missionary works. Bhikkhus1 Not only I but also you have released from snares attached to deities and men, and became Arahantaship. Now go for propagation to various places for peace and welfare of deities and men in the world, and preach the pure and noble Dhamma which is excellent in beginning, middle and end. Here we can see apparently the highest nobility and excellency of the Dhamma. Apart from this, keeping in mind the Dhamma of humanity ones who pay respect to the elders of morality, concentration and wisdom and the old, will be praised in this life and will approach to the heavenly stage in the next.
Tundila Jataka also throws light that the Dhamma is just like clean lake where no dirtiness exists. In another place also Dhammadeva Putta Jataka states that in this world the Dhamma (justice) appears at the very outset, and the Adhamma (unjustice) appears later.
Tesakuna Jataka instructed an Upadesa, "Dhammam cara Maharaja". Kings should follow the Dhamma (justice)in eight portions;(1)parents(2)wife,sons and daughters(3)friends and courtiers (4)troops (5)Village and Market town(6)City and pro vine(7)Samana Brhamana (8)and beasts. In the above quoted jataka it was further mentioned that followeing Dhaza jataka also says that the follower of the Dhamma can live in peace not only in this life but also in the next.
Mahahamsa Jataka illustrates ten rules to be followed by kings. They are:are (1)Dana gift (Sila) ---Morality (3)Cage ----generosity-(4)Ajjva ---honesty (5)Maddava--mildness (6)Tapa---austerity (7) akkodha---non anger;lobing to all (8)Avihinsa ---Non-cruelty; kindness to weak (9)khanti---patient; forbearence (10)Avirodha--non-lailure public desire and welfare.
Dighanikaya, Mahaparinibbana Sutta defines Satta Raja Aparihaniya Dhamma (seven factors pf Mpm-decline of the Kings and Princess admonished to Vijji princee by the Buddha at Sarandada Shrine in Vaisali. They are:
1.Frequent 2. Unity and harmony 3. Following the ancient tradition and culture 4.Respect to theold, and act as their advice. 5.Non-violate to the women and the weak 6.Freedom-right to all religions,(7)And undertaking responsibility for all religions devotees, whoever they are (foreigners or nationals)
Sonananda Jataka gives notable evidence that these four
1.Dana -- charity, 2. Piyavaca-endearment speech, 3. Atthacariya-doing good and 4.samanattata-sociality(Vatthu Dhamma ) are giving the strong supports in making relationship for the world people as if the linch pin maintains the moving cart not to be in disorderly manner, or we may say that these four Dhammas are regard as the control of the human society.
The explantion about Dhamma in Milinda Pannha is strange and very interesting. the good becoming fully enlighterned established Dhammanagara (the city of Dhamma). weapon, believing -pole, mindfullness-guard, knowledge - spire, Suttannta-short- cut, abhidhamma -four crossing road, Vinaya-decision, and Satipathana-main road. In that Dhammanagara Suttantadhara, Vinyadhara and Abhidhmma-dhara , Dhammakathika etc. lived.
On seeing a well-founded house, we can know the ability of the carpenter. Just like so we can understand the enlightened one by seeing this Dhammagara's excellency.
Hiri (shme from misconduct)and Otappa (fear from misconduct) are the Loka Pala Dhamma (the Dhama which maintains the world). If these Hiri and Otappa did not safeguard the world, it will be perplexed and destroyed sestroyed like the world of animal. This is fully stated in Dukanipata, Lokapala Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya.
Tikanipata, paloka Sutta also fully confirms if Dhamma is not restoredor kept, the world will be demolished, and (1)Visamalobha, (2) Miccha Dhammapareta and (3)Adhammraga will be coming up in this world. Visamalobha meana one wants more than what he earns. Micchadhammapareta means false notion,false seeing and false believing. Adhammaraga purports sexual passion on unadullterous step-mother,step-father, daughter,sons sisters etc. Likewise, in Devadhamma Jataka Hiri and Otappa are calledSukha Dhamma (pure Dhamma )or Deva Dhamma. If we count or make countable are 84,000 Dhammakkhandha.
There are some other distinctions concerning Dhamma. TheBuddha gave the Dhamma inherit to Rahula, his son, although the latter demanded the material legacy. The Buddha emphasised his followers to be benficiary of the Dhamma in Dhamadayada Sutta of Mulapannasa.
Vinaya Mahava reveals this fact. To live without support is suffering. It will be good to depend on some one. As he did not see any one who can be greather than him in Sila, Samadhi and Panna, the Buddha relied on the Dhamma which made him enlightened, although he searched at the time of be coming enlightened one for some one to whom he could look.
The Buddha bestowed the Dhammadasa (mirror ofDhamma )on human beings and deities. Dhamma is the mirror. Mahaparinibba Sutta sescribed the real facts of all things reflect in this Dhamma mirror. In Mangala Sutta it is said that hearing, discussing and exerting the Dhamma is an excellent blessing and it adds further that in human life every body has the 8 kinds of the regulation of the world (eight Lokadhamma)They are:--
1.Labha (acquisition)2. Alabha (non-acquisition 3.Yasa (glory) 4. Ayasa non-glory
5.Ninda (blame ) 6.Pasnnsa (Prise) 7Sukha (biss)8. Dukkha (distress)
Furthermore, there is an important instruction to all that, thouhg these eight Dhammas are inevitable to us, we should not keep in our mind shocking, anxiety , dirtiness and harm.
Any one who wants to be the Buddha or Arahanta, mustfollow the four procedures of Satipathana. Dhamma included in these procedures of Satipathana.
In Anguttara Nikaya, Ekanipata, Etadaggavagga, it is noted that punna (mantani putta). Mahakccayana, Mahakumarakassapa, Bhikkhuni Dhamadinna. and citta (gahapati) Upasaka attained Etadaga (a pre-eminent position) applauded by the Buddha, due to their prominent ability on preaching the Dhamma.
The ethics which illustrates the Dhama's nature in many aspects in Dhammapada containing 423 Verses.Some discussions are to be applied here. Although all things grow old and fall into cessation, yet the Dhamma of the good never grows old and cease. It is always new and fresh. This statement comes in verse No. 151, Verse No. 168 illustrates that the person who observes the Dhamma lives in peace both in this and next life. This description tallies with the adduce of Dhammadhaza Jataka.
Dhammadana (dhamma-gift) excels all other dana (gifts), Dhammarasa (Dhamma flavour)excels all other rasa(flabours), and Dhammarati (pleasure in Dhamma )excels all other pleasures. Verse no. 354.
Eightfold Magganga (path)is the best in all, four sacca is the best of all, Viragadhamma (non-attachement) in the best of state, and the Buddha is the best of all beings. Verse No.273.
Dhammapada, further, describes that all Dhamma including Nibbana is Anattadhamma. Verse No.270.
Buddha preached Vakkli Bhikkhu that the person who sees me, does not see the Dhamma. Only the person who sees the Dhamma, sees me as well.
In many dissscourse the Buddha often emphasised that the Dhamma Vinaya or Satthusasana (the teachings of theBuddha ) has only one essence and flavour of freedom (Vimuttirasa), as just great ocean has only one salty taste, though it was flooded over with different tasted water flowing from the 5 great rivers and 500 small ones. In this fact it is embodied that Dhamma never accept disharmony and subject. It grasps the unity and freedom.
In Vinay Pitaka, Culavagga Pali, Bhikkhuni Sangha, that the essence of the Dhamma Vinaya or Satthusasana is to eliminate Raga (desire)and attachment, to abandon the cycle of rebirh, to be in contentment, to enjoy self in seclude place, to be laborious and to ease in career.
In short, Dhamma has 6 characteristics. they are:-
1.well-preach 2.resuting at present 3. effecting at any time 4. that can invite every man to come and see; open to all 5. that should be kept in mind and 6. that will be convinced by only theGood.
Thus we can find oviously the excellency of Dhamma in pali literature. Neverthless, Mulapannasa Pali, Mulapariyaya Sutta wars that one should not attach this Dhamma with craving, conceit, false beieving and Alagaddupama Sutta embodiest this fact that the person who crosses the stream or the river by a raft, will take the raft no more, thinking this raft is great helper to me, after arriving his destination. He will have ot leave it there. Justlike so the person who practices the Dhamma as a procedure must deseart it whatever it is, when he arrives his destination, Nibbana. He should not attach this is my Dhamm. Here Dhamma likens to the raft.
If we take conclusion considering all the above references, Dhamma is the truth of the world,and that truth was handled by Buddha, pacceka Buddha. and the Good etc. Moreover, the truth is the resort of those noble and excellent persons. The truth isa light leading the world. Wallers under the truth light must arriveat peace and tranquility.
So long as we oberve the Dhamma or the truth, there will be no severe quarrelling, no o corruptions, no conflicts, no cruel massacres. So far if we see the world, in almost all countries there are continous fighting, cruelty, killing, corruptions, excruciations, harassments, oppresses etc. Especially we are getting the sight of oppression on innocent
people committed by the powerful strata by resorting to their power, though we do not want to see.
The reason of this happening is that they handle Adhamma by turning the Dhamma away.
It should be realized by all of us what Dhammas were pursued by the Good for peaceand welfare of the world. These Dhammas are:--
1.Saddha (faith)
2.Sila (Morlity)
3.Suta(learning)
4.Caga (generosity)
5.Panna (wisdom)
6.Hiri (shame from misconduct)
7.Ottapa (fear from misconduct )
These are also called the seven wealth of the Good
or,
In other way if we add sati (mindfulness) and Viriya (effort)in place of sila and Caga, they become the seven Saddhamma (the regulations of the Good).
It is, therefore, clear that our Dhamma Loka (The Truth World) purports the world which should be flourished with the above quoted seven wealth and seven regulations of the Good, and eventually we mean all meitorious deeds.

Dhammapadatthaka

Syair 1 (I:1. Kisah Cakkhupala Thera )

Suatu hari, Cakkhupala Thera berkunjung ke Vihara Jetavana untuk melakukan penghormatan kepada Sang Buddha. Malamnya, saat melakukan meditasi jalan kaki, sang thera tanpa sengaja menginjak banyak serangga sehingga mati. Keesokan harinya, pagi-pagi sekali serombongan bhikkhu yang mendengar kedatangan sang thera bermaksud mengunjunginya. Di tengah jalan, di dekat tempat sang thera menginap mereka melihat banyak serangga yang mati.
"Iiih, mengapa banyak serangga yang mati di sini ?" seru seorang bhikkhu. "Aah, jangan jangan ...," celetuk yang lain. "Jangan-jangan apa?" sergah beberapa bhikkhu. "Jangan-jangan ini perbuatan sang thera!" jawabnya. "Kok bisa begitu?" tanya yang lain lagi. "Begini, sebelum sang thera berdiam di sini, tak ada kejadian seperti ini. Mungkin sang thera terganggu oleh serangga-serangga itu. Karena jengkelnya ia membunuhinya."
"Itu berarti ia melanggar vinaya, maka perlu kita laporkan kepada Sang Buddha!" seru beberapa bhikkhu. "Benar, mari kita laporkan kepada Sang Buddha, bahwa Cakkhupala Thera telah melanggar vinaya," timpal sebagian besar dari bhikkhu tersebut.
Alih-alih dari mengunjungi sang thera, para bhikkhu itu berubah haluan, berbondong-bondong menghadap Sang Buddha untuk melaporkan temuan mereka, bahwa ‘Cakkhupala Thera telah melanggar vinaya !’
Mendengar laporan para bhikkhu, Sang Buddha bertanya, "Para bhante, apakah kalian telah melihat sendiri pembunuhan itu ?"
"Tidak Bhante," jawab mereka serempak.
Sang Buddha kemudian menjawab, "Kalian tidak melihatnya, demikian pula Cakkhupala Thera juga tidak melihat serangga-serangga itu, karena matanya buta. Selain itu Cakkhupala Thera telah mencapai kesucian arahat. Ia telah tidak mempunyai kehendak untuk membunuh."
"Bagaimana seorang yang telah mencapai arahat tetapi matanya buta?" tanya beberapa bhikkhu.
Maka Sang Buddha menceritakan kisah di bawah :
Pada kehidupan lampau, Cakkhupala pernah terlahir sebagai seorang tabib yang handal. Suatu ketika datang seorang wanita miskin. "Tuan, tolong sembuhkanlah penyakit mata saya ini. Karena miskin, saya tak bisa membayar pertolongan tuan dengan uang. Tetapi, apabila sembuh, saya berjanji dengan anak-anak saya akan menjadi pembantu tuan," pinta wanita itu. Permintaan itu disanggupi oleh sang tabib.
Perlahan-lahan penyakit mata yang parah itu mulai sembuh. Sebaliknya, wanita itu menjadi ketakutan, apabila penyakit matanya sembuh, ia dan anak-anaknya akan terikat menjadi pembantu tabib itu. Dengan marah-marah ia berbohong kepada sang tabib, bahwa sakit matanya bukannya sembuh, malahan bertambah parah.
Setelah diperiksa dengan cermat, sang tabib tahu bahwa wanita miskin itu telah berbohong kepadanya. Tabib itu menjadi tersinggung dan marah, tetapi tidak diperlihatkan kepada wanita itu. "Oh, kalau begitu akan kuganti obatmu," demikian jawabnya. "Nantikan pembalasanku!" serunya dalam hati. Benar, akhirnya wanita itu menjadi buta total karena pembalasan sang tabib.
Sebagai akibat dari perbuatan jahatnya, tabib itu telah kehilangan penglihatannya pada banyak kehidupan selanjutnya.
Mengakhiri ceriteranya, Sang Buddha kemudian membabarkan syair di bawah ini :
Pikiran adalah pelopor dari segala sesuatu, pikiran adalah pemimpin, pikiran adalah pembentuk. Bila seseorang berbicara atau berbuat dengan pikiran jahat, maka penderitaan akan mengikutinya bagaikan roda pedati mengikuti langkah kaki lembu yang menariknya.
Pada saat khotbah Dhamma itu berakhir, di antara para bhikkhu yang hadir ada yang terbuka mata batinnya dan mencapai tingkat kesucian arahat dengan mempunyai kemampuan batin analitis pandangan Terang’ (pati-sambhida).

Syair 2 ( I:2. Kisah Matthakundali )

Seorang brahmana bernama Adinnapubbaka mempunyai anak tunggal yang amat dicintai dan disayangi bernama Matthakundali. Sayang, Adinnapubbaka adalah seorang kikir dan tidak pernah memberikan sesuatu kepada orang lain. Bahkan perhiasan emas untuk anak tunggalnya dikerjakan sendiri demi menghemat upah yang harus diberikan kepada tukang emas.
Suatu hari, anaknya jatuh sakit, tetapi tidak satu tabibpun diundang untuk mengobati anaknya. Ketika menyadari anaknya telah mendekati ajal, segera ia membawa anaknya keluar rumah dan dibaringkan di beranda, sehingga orang-orang yang berkunjung ke rumahnya tidak mengetahui keadaan itu.
Sebagaimana biasanya, di waktu pagi sekali, Sang Buddha bermeditasi. Setelah selesai, dengan mata Ke-Buddha-an Beliau melihat ke seluruh penjuru, barangkali ada makhluk yang memerlukan pertolongan. Sang Buddha melihat Matthakundali sedang berbaring sekarat di beranda. Beliau merasa bahwa anak itu memerlukan pertolongannya.
Setelah memakai jubah-Nya, Sang Buddha memasuki kota Savatthi untuk berpindapatta. Akhirnya Beliau tiba di rumah brahmana Adinnapubbaka. Beliau berdiri di depan pintu rumah dan memperhatikan Matthakundali. Rupanya Matthakundali tidak sadar sedang diperhatikan. Kemudian Sang Buddha memancarkan sinar dari tubuh-Nya, sehingga mengundang perhatian Matthakundali, brahmana muda.
Ketika brahmana muda melihat Sang Buddha timbullah keyakinan yang kuat dalam batinnya. Setelah Sang Buddha pergi, ia meninggal dunia dengan hati yang penuh keyakinan terhadap Sang Buddha dan terlahir kembali di alam surga Tavatimsa.
Dari kediamannya di surga, Matthakundali melihat ayahnya berduka-cita atas dirinya di tempat kremasi. Ia merasa iba. Kemudian ia menampakkan dirinya sebagaimana dahulu sebelum ia meninggal, dan memberitahu ayahnya bahwa ia telah terlahir di alam surga Tavatimsa karena keyakinannya kepada Sang Buddha. Maka ia menganjurkan ayahnya mengundang dan berdana makanan kepada Sang Buddha.
Brahmana Adinnapubbaka mengundang Sang Buddha untuk menerima dana makanan. Selesai makan, ia bertanya, "Bhante, apakah seseorang dapat, atau tidak dapat, terlahir di alam surga; hanya karena berkeyakinan terhadap Buddha tanpa berdana dan tanpa melaksanakan moral (sila)?"
Sang Buddha tersenyum mendengar pertanyaan itu. Kemudian Beliau memanggil dewa Matthakundali agar menampakkan dirinya. Matthakundali segera menampakkan diri, tubuhnya dihiasi dengan perhiasan surgawi, dan menceritakan kepada orang tua dan sanak keluarganya yang hadir, bagaimana ia dapat terlahir di alam surga Tavatimsa. Orang-orang yang memperhatikan dewa tersebut menjadi kagum, bahwa anak brahmana Adinnapubbaka mendapatkan kemuliaan hanya dengan keyakinan terhadap Sang Buddha.
Pertemuan itu diakhiri oleh Sang Buddha dengan membabarkan syair kedua berikut ini :
Pikiran adalah pelopor dari segala sesuatu, pikiran adalah pemimpin, pikiran adalah pembentuk. Bila seseorang berbicara atau berbuat dengan pikiran murni, maka kebahagiaan akan mengikutnya bagaikan bayang-bayang yang tak pernah meninggalkan bendanya.
Pada akhir khotbah Dhamma itu, Matthakundali dan Adinnapubbaka langsung mencapai tingkat kesucian sotapatti. Kelak, Adinnapubbaka mendanakan hampir semua kekayaannya bagi kepentingan Dhamma.


Syair 3-4 (I:3. Kisah Tissa Thera )

Tissa adalah putera kakak perempuan dari ayah Pangeran Siddhattha. Ia menjadi bhikkhu pada usia yang telah lanjut, dan suatu saat tinggal bersama-sama Sang Buddha. Walau baru beberapa tahun menjalani kebhikkhuannya, ia bertingkah laku seperti bhikkhu senior dan senang mendapat penghormatan serta pelayanan dari bhikkhu-bhikkhu yunior, ia tidak melaksanakan semua kewajibannya, di samping itu ia juga sering bertengkar dengan bhikkhu-bhikkhu muda lainnya.
Suatu ketika seorang bhikkhu muda menegur kelakuannya. Hal itu membuat bhikkhu Tissa sangat kecewa dan sedih, dan kemudian ia melaporkan hal itu kepada Sang Buddha. Bhikkhu-bhikkhu lain yang mengetahui permasalahan tersebut, mengikutinya untuk memberikan keterangan yang benar kepada Sang Buddha jika dibutuhkan.
Sang Buddha, yang telah mengetahui kelakuan bhikkhu Tissa menasehatinya agar ia mau mengubah kelakuannya, tidak memiliki pikiran membenci.
Sang Buddha juga mengatakan bahwa bukan pada kehidupan kini saja bhikkhu Tissa mempunyai watak keras kepala, juga pada kehidupan sebelumnya. Bhikkhu Tissa pernah terlahir sebagai seorang pertapa yang keras kepala bernama Devala. Karena suatu kesalahpahaman, ia mencerca seorang pertapa suci. Meskipun raja ikut campur tangan dengan memintakan ampun kepada pertapa suci itu, Devala tetap berkeras kepala dan menolak untuk melakukannya. Hanya dengan paksaan dan tekanan dari raja, Devala barulah mau meminta ampun kepada pertapa suci itu.
Pada akhir wejangannya Sang Buddha membabarkan syair 3 dan 4 berikut ini :
"Ia menghina saya, ia memukul saya, ia mengalahkan saya, ia merampas milik saya." Selama seseorang masih menyimpan pikiran-pikiran seperti itu, maka kebencian tak akan pernah berakhir.
"Ia menghina saya, ia memukul saya, ia mengalahkan saya, ia merampas milik saya." Jika seseorang sudah tidak lagi menyimpan pikiran-pikiran seperti itu, maka kebencian akan berakhir.


Syair 5 (I:4. Kisah Kalayakkhini)

Ada seorang laki-laki perumah tangga mempunyai istri yang mandul. Karena merasa mandul dan takut diceraikan oleh suaminya, ia menganjurkan suaminya untuk menikah lagi dengan wanita lain yang dipilih olehnya sendiri. Suaminya menyetujui dan tak berapa lama kemudian isteri muda itu mengandung.
Ketika isteri mandul itu mengetahui bahwa madunya hamil, ia menjadi tidak senang. Dikirimkannya makanan yang telah diberi racun, sehingga isteri muda itu keguguran. Demikian pula pada kehamilan yang kedua. Pada kehamilannya yang ketiga, isteri muda itu tidak memberi tahu kepada isteri tua. Karena kondisi fisiknya, kehamilan itu diketahui juga oleh isteri tua. Berbagai cara dicoba oleh isteri tua itu agar kandungan madunya itu gugur lagi, yang akhirnya menyebabkan isteri muda itu meninggal pada saat persalinan. Sebelum meninggal, wanita malang itu dengan hati yang dipenuhi kebencian bersumpah untuk membalas dendam kepada isteri tua.
Maka permusuhan itupun dimulai.
Pada kelahiran berikutnya, isteri tua dan isteri muda tersebut terlahir sebagai seekor ayam betina dan seekor kucing. Kemudian terlahir kembali sebagai seekor macan tutul dan seekor rusa betina, dan akhirnya terlahir sebagai seorang wanita perumah tangga di kota Savatthi dan peri yang bernama Kali.
Suatu ketika sang peri (Kalayakkhini) terlihat sedang mengejar-ngejar wanita tersebut dengan bayinya. Ketika wanita itu mendengar bahwa Sang Buddha sedang membabarkan Dhamma di Vihara Jetavana, Ia berlari ke sana dan meletakkan bayinya di kaki Sang Buddha sambil mohon perlindungan.
Sedangkan peri tertahan di depan pintu vihara oleh dewa penjaga vihara. Akhirnya peri diperkenankan masuk, dan kedua wanita itu diberi nasehat oleh Sang Buddha.
Sang Buddha menceritakan asal mula permusuhan mereka pada kehidupan lampau, yaitu sebagai seorang istri tua dan istri muda dari seorang suami, sebagai seekor ayam betina dan seekor kucing, sebagai seekor macan tutul dan seekor rusa betina.
Mereka telah dipertemukan untuk melihat bahwa kebencian hanya dapat menyebabkan kebencian yang makin berlarut-larut, tetapi kebencian akan berakhir melalui persahabatan, kasih sayang, saling pengertian, dan niat baik.
Kemudian Sang Buddha membabarkan syair 5 berikut ini :
Kebencian tak akan pernah berakhir apabila dibalas dengan kebencian. Tetapi, kebencian akan berakhir bila dibalas dengan tidak membenci. Inilah satu hukum abadi.
Kedua wanita itu akhirnya menyadari kesalahan mereka, keduanya berdamai, dan permusuhan panjang itu berakhir.
Sang Buddha kemudian meminta kepada wanita itu untuk menyerahkan anaknya untuk digendong peri. Takut akan keselamatan anaknya, wanita itu ragu-ragu. Tetapi, karena keyakinannya yang kuat terhadap Sang Buddha ia segera menyerahkan anaknya kepada peri.
Peri menerima anak itu dengan hangat. Anak itu dicium dan dibelainya dengan penuh kasih sayang, bagaikan anaknya sendiri. Setelah puas, diangsurkan ke ibunya kembali.
Demikianlah, pada akhirnya mereka berdua hidup rukun dan saling mengasihi.


Syair 6 (I:5 Kisah Pertengkaran di Kosambi )

Suatu waktu, bhikkhu-bhikkhu Kosambi terbentuk menjadi dua kelompok. Kelompok yang satu pengikut guru ahli vinaya, sedang kelompok lain pengikut guru ahli Dhamma. Mereka sering berselisih paham sehingga menyebabkan pertengkaran. Mereka juga tak pernah mengacuhkan nasehat Sang Buddha. Berkali-kali Sang Buddha menasehati mereka, tetapi tak pernah berhasil, walaupun Sang Buddha juga mengetahui bahwa pada akhirnya mereka akan menyadari kesalahannya.
Maka Sang Buddha meninggalkan mereka dan menghabiskan masa vassa-Nya sendirian di hutan Rakkhita dekat Palileyyaka. Di sana Sang Buddha dibantu oleh gajah Palileyya.
Umat di Kosambi kecewa dengan kepergian Sang Buddha. Mendengar alasan kepergian Sang Buddha, mereka menolak memberikan kebutuhan hidup para bhikkhu di Kosambi.
Karena hampir tak ada umat yang menyokong kebutuhan para bhikkhu, mereka hidup menderita. Akhirnya mereka menyadari kesalahan mereka, dan menjadi rukun kembali seperti sebelumnya.
Namun, umat tetap tidak memperlakukan mereka sebaik seperti semula, sebelum para bhikkhu mengakui kesalahan mereka di hadapan Sang Buddha. Tetapi, Sang Buddha berada jauh dari mereka dan waktu itu masih pada pertengahan vassa. Terpaksalah para bhikkhu menghabiskan vassa mereka dengan mengalami banyak penderitaan.
Di akhir masa vassa, Yang Ariya Ananda bersama banyak bhikkhu lainnya pergi menemui Sang Buddha, menyampaikan pesan Anathapindika serta para umat yang memohon Sang Buddha agar pulang kembali. Demikianlah. Sang Buddha kembali ke Vihara Jetavana di Savatthi. Di hadapan Beliau para bhikkhu berlutut dan mengakui kesalahan mereka.
Sang Buddha mengingatkan, bahwa pada suatu saat mereka semua pasti mengalami kematian, oleh karena itu mereka harus berhenti bertengkar dan jangan berlaku seolah-olah mereka tidak akan pernah mati.
Kemudian Sang Buddha membabarkan syair 6 berikut ini :
Sebagian besar orang tidak mengetahui bahwa dalam pertengkaran mereka akan binasa; tetapi mereka yang dapat menyadari kebenaran ini akan segera mengakhiri semua pertengkaran.
Semua bhikkhu mencapai tingkat kesucian sotapatti, setelah khotbah Dhamma itu berakhir.



Syair 7-8 (I:6. Kisah Mahakala Thera )

Mahakala dan Culakala adalah dua saudagar bersaudara dari kota Setabya. Suatu ketika dalam perjalanan membawa barang-barang dagangannya mereka berkesempatan untuk mendengarkan khotbah Dhamma yang diberikan oleh Sang Buddha. Setelah mendengarkan khotbah tersebut Mahakala memohon kepada Sang Buddha untuk diterima sebagai salah satu anggota pasamuan bhikkhu. Culakala juga ikut bergabung dalam anggota Sangha tetapi dengan tujuan berkenalan dengan para bhikkhu dan menjaga saudaranya.
Mahakala bersungguh-sungguh dalam latihan pertapaannya di kuburan (Sosanika Dhutanga), dan tekun bermeditasi dengan objek kelapukan dan ketidak-kekalan. Akhirnya ia memperoleh Pandangan Terang?dan mencapai tingkat kesucian arahat.
Di dalam perjalanan-Nya, Sang Buddha bersama murid-murid-Nya, termasuk Mahakala dan Culakala, singgah di hutan Simsapa, dekat Setabya. Ketika berdiam di sana, bekas istri-istri Culakala mengundang Sang Buddha beserta murid-murid Beliau ke rumah mereka untuk menerima dana makanan. Culakala sendiri terlebih dulu pulang untuk mempersiapkan tempat duduk bagi Sang Buddha dan murid-muridnya.
Kesempatan itu dipergunakan sebaik-baiknya oleh bekas istri-istri Culakala untuk merayunya, agar ia mau kembali kepada mereka. "Kakanda, alangkah kurusnya engkau sekarang. Tentu selama ini kakanda sangat menderita. Mari, adinda bersedia memijit kakanda untuk menghilangkan lelah, seperti dahulu kala. O, kakanda, marilah kita bergembira seperti dahulu lagi."
Pada dasarnya Culakala memang tidak tekun dan bersungguh-sungguh dalam melaksanakan kewajibannya sebagai bhikkhu. Mendengar berbagai rayuan dan rangsangan, batinnya tidak kuat. Nafsunya tergugah, tanpa pikir panjang lagi dilemparkannya jubahnya dan kembalilah ia kepada kehidupan duniawi, sebagai perumah tangga.
Melihat para istri Culakala berhasil mendapatkan suaminya kembali, para istri Mahakala pun tidak mau kalah. Pada hari berikutnya, bekas istri-istri Mahakala mengundang Sang Buddha bersama murid-murid-Nya ke rumah mereka, dengan harapan mereka dapat melakukan hal yang sama terhadap Mahakala.
Setelah berdana makanan, mereka meminta kepada Sang Buddha untuk membiarkan Mahakala tinggal sendirian untuk melakukan pelimpahan jasa (anumodana). Sang Buddha mengabulkan. Bersama murid-murid lain Beliau meninggalkan tempat tersebut.
Sewaktu tiba di pintu gerbang dusun, para bhikkhu mengungkapkan kekhawatiran dan keprihatinan mereka. Mereka merasa khawatir karena Mahakala telah diijinkan untuk tinggal sendiri. Mereka merasa takut kalau terjadi sesuatu, seperti Culakala saudaranya, sehingga Mahakala juga akan memutuskan untuk meninggalkan pasamuan bhikkhu, kembali hidup bersama bekas istri-istrinya.
Terhadap hal ini, Sang Buddha menjelaskan bahwa kedua saudara itu tidak sama. Culakala masih menuruti kesenangan nafsu keinginan, malas, dan lemah; dia seperti pohon lapuk. Mahakala sebaliknya. Tekun, mantap, dan kuat dalam keyakinannya terhadap Buddha, Dhamma dan Sangha; dia seperti gunung karang.
Kemudian Sang Buddha membabarkan syair 7 dan 8 berikut ini :
Seseorang yang hidupnya hanya ditujukan pada hal-hal yang menyenangkan, yang inderanya tidak terkendali, yang makannya tidak mengenal batas, malas serta tidak bersemangat; maka Mara (Penggoda) akan menguasai dirinya, bagaikan angin menumbangkan pohon yang lapuk.
Seseorang yang hidupnya tidak ditujukan pada hal-hal yang menyenangkan, yang inderanya terkendali, sederhana dalam makanan, penuh keyakinan serta bersemangat, maka Mara (Penggoda) tidak dapat menguasai dirinya bagaikan angin yang tidak dapat menumbangkan gunung karang.
Saat itu bekas istri-istri Mahakala mengelilinginya dan berusaha merayu agar Mahakala melepaskan jubah kuningnya. Mahakala mengetahui upaya mereka, maka ia tetap berdiam diri saja. Tetapi, istri-istrinya berusaha lebih keras lagi. Melihat itu, Mahakala merasa tak ada gunanya lagi berdiam di situ. Ia berdiri, dengan kemampuan batin luar biasa ia melesat ke angkasa melewati atap rumah. Ia tiba tepat di bawah kaki Sang Buddha saat Beliau tengah mengakhiri pembabaran dua syair di atas.